Plant-based materials as protective agents against nanoparticle-induced toxicity, with emphasis on fish: a mechanistic review

The present review paper explores the protective effects of phytochemicals against nanoparticle (NP)-induced toxicity in fish, with a focus on underlying molecular mechanisms. Nanoparticles (NPs) are widely utilized across various industrial and technological sectors. However, their release into aquatic environments may pose significant ecological concerns, particularly for aquatic organisms such as fish. Due to their small size and high surface reactivity, NPs can accumulate in fish tissues and disrupt physiological processes. The toxic effects of NPs include oxidative stress, inflammation, genotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis. These effects are influenced by the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles and surrounding environmental conditions, making toxicity assessment complex. Phytochemicals such as polyphenols (curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin) have demonstrated strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and detoxifying capabilities. These compounds can modulate key molecular signaling pathways, including Nrf2/Keap1, NF-κB, and JAK/STAT, to reduce cellular damage. Additionally, they stabilize mitochondrial function, inhibit pro-apoptotic signaling, and support immune responses in fish exposed to NPs. Plant-based chelators further contribute by reducing NP bioavailability and tissue accumulation, thus lowering overall toxicity. While laboratory studies show encouraging results, real-world applications remain limited. Challenges such as low bioavailability, variability in phytochemical content, and incomplete understanding of their interactions with NPs still need to be addressed. Moreover, synergistic effects with other mitigation strategies and long-term ecological impacts require further study. Future research should emphasize high-throughput screening methods, nano-formulation improvements, and in vivo validation under realistic environmental conditions. © 2025 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.