approaches to achieving technological sovereignty in the European Union, Russia, and China: Theory and Practice; Пути достижения технологического суверенитета в европейском союзе, Российской Федерации, китайской Народной Республике: теория и практика

In recent years, technological sovereignty, its constituent elements, and the pathways to achieving it have become a central focus of academic discussion both internationally and in Russia. For Russia, the issue has become especially important in the face of sanctions imposed to restrict access to advanced technologies, the outcomes of international research, and broader global cooperation. This article examines both the theoretical foundations and practical dimensions of achieving technological sovereignty in the EU, Russia, and China. It identifies distinct strategic patterns: the EU's emphasis on multilateral cooperation, Russia's reliance on domestic capabilities, and China's strategy of technology acquisition followed by domestic adaptation and scaling. The study relies on content analysis and a retrospective review of empirical materials, including international rankings (competitiveness, innovation capacity, cybersecurity, etc.), strategic and regulatory policy documents from the given countries, as well as analytical reports and scholarly publications (2014-2024). It proposes a conceptual model of technological sovereignty comprising four universal structural components: (1) emerging technologies, (2) a scientific and production base supported by innovation infrastructure, (3) effective state-led economic policy instruments, and (4) exclusive national resources (natural, intellectual, and financial). While these core elements remain constant, the mechanisms for their implementation differ depending on the specific developmental conditions of each state. The findings provide a foundation for further cross-national analysis of technological sovereignty as a driver of industrial and innovation capacity among the world's leading economies. © 2025 Elsevier B.V., All rights reserved.